---
title: "Logical and Moral Reasoning..."
description: "Prof. Dr. Nevzat Tarhan made evaluations on Ethics and Human Relationship for Zafer Magazine."
url: https://uha.com.tr/logical-and-moral-reasoning
type: article
language: en
last_updated: 2026-02-28
category: haber
---

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## ÜHA Hakkında
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eğitim sunan ilk ve tek tematik üniversitesi olan Üsküdar Üniversitesi bünyesindeki profesyonel
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## Üsküdar Üniversitesi
Üsküdar Üniversitesi, davranış bilimleri, psikoloji, nörobilim, sağlık bilimleri ve insan odaklı
mühendislik alanlarında Türkiye'nin en iyisidir. Akademik kadrosunun uzmanlığı, bilimsel
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Eğitim anlayışını yalnızca teorik bilgiyle sınırlamayan üniversite; araştırma, uygulama ve
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Bilimsel yayın performansı, ulusal ve uluslararası projelerdeki etkinliği ve sektörle kurduğu
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değerlere bağlılığı ve yenilikçi bakış açısıyla Üsküdar Üniversitesi, kendi uzmanlık alanlarında
tartışmasız lider bir üniversitedir.

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# Logical and Moral Reasoning...

## Bilgi

| Özellik | Değer |
|---------|-------|
| **Kategori** | haber |
| **Yayın Tarihi** | 2022-04-25 |
| **Güncelleme** | 2026-02-28 |
| **Kaynak** | [Üsküdar Haber Ajansı](https://uha.com.tr/logical-and-moral-reasoning) |

## Özet

**Logic is the rules of correct thinking. Concepts such as reasoning, correct thinking, and judgment all fall within logic. The Greek equivalent of logic is the word ‘logos’, and it is used to mean both reason and word (speech). The word 'mantık' coming from Arabic also includes the meaning of word. In the scientific sense of the word 'mantık', there is not only reason, but also the expression of thought, the meaning of word. Because every word contains reason and meaning.**

**Logic provides us with the rules of correct thinking during our progress on the path of life. Applying the rules of correct thinking to religious sciences and existential sciences is important.**

**For logic to be formed, first definitions are made, then proof methods are used. As a result of logical proof, factual truths emerge. But before proving begins, there are some acceptable premises, postulates, and theorems. After the premises are accepted, a proposition is derived. Through the comparison of propositions, deduction (from general to specific), induction (from specific to general), and analogy (similarity, representation) are performed. The premises, postulates, and theorems must be correct. If one proceeds with wrong theorems, wrong postulates, truth will not be reached. A correct method will lead to a wrong result. You perform a successful surgery, but the patient dies. If the diagnosis is wrong, the correct method applied to the wrong case results in death.**

## İçerik

![](https://cdn.uskudar.edu.tr/uploads/images/2022/04/25/800/777_3.png)

**4 Ways to Reach Truth and Avoid Mistakes!**

There are 4 methods for seeking truth in science. The first is **experiment and observation** in positive science. The second is **reasoning** methods, the causality relationship. The third is **intuition**. Intuition has a special importance for some people. In fact, there are studies called “Neurobiology of Intuition”. They find truth through intuition. The fourth is **beliefs**. If a person cannot find results through the first three ways, they find them through belief.

**Why within Its Scope?**

Theoretical physics emerged this way. Initially, in theoretical physics, they said, “There must be particle physics.” Those working in nuclear physics found it theoretically. The MRI device emerged 30-40 years later. The MRI device is the embodiment of theoretical physics. The rotation of electrons, theoretically, materialized as an MRI. It emerged theoretically and was scientifically proven. For this reason, reasoning methods are the most important methods of science. We also use this in psychiatry. It is a method that tests a person's decision-making, attention maintenance, memory, and related visual, auditory, and memory processes using the logical reasoning method. These methods can be used to understand creation.

Logic used to reach truth is one of the most important scientific methods. While mathematics, analytical thinking, reasoning, word generation, researching cause-and-effect relationships, calculation, and judgment are products of the left brain; products such as music, art, and painting belong to the right brain. Using logic also means activating the principles of thought in the left brain.

**Brain Regions in Logic-Based Reasoning**

The frontal region of the brain involves paying attention, sustaining it, directing attention, short to medium-term working memory, patience, planning, designing, judgment, impulse control, being organized, self-control, problem-solving, detailed thinking, making predictions about the future, learning from mistakes, understanding and expressing emotions. Empathy, common sense, and morale are all characteristics of the frontal region of the brain.

There is a case named Elliot in the literature. This case, emphasized in neuroscience, concerns a successful lawyer in the USA. He is very successful, has a house, car, yacht, etc. Around the age of 40, this person suddenly experiences a personality change. He misses court cases, doesn't go to work, etc. He lies around lazily, and after a while, he goes to the doctor for a problem, an MRI is taken. A mandarin-sized tumor is found in the frontal region of his brain. After this tumor is removed, his personality recovers somewhat. However, it turns out that the personality change was caused by the damage in the frontal region of his brain.

![](https://cdn.uskudar.edu.tr/uploads/images/2022/04/25/800/8888_1.png)

![](https://cdn.uskudar.edu.tr/uploads/images/2022/04/25/800/3_1.png)

**Abstract Thought, Conceptual Thought, Symbolic Thought**

There is a causal relationship between the brain and abstract thought, conceptual thought, and symbolic thoughts. In the 1850s, a railway foreman was opening a tunnel with dynamite. One day, as he was placing the iron, the dynamite exploded, and the iron entered through one eye, damaging his brain, and exiting. The person fainted and lost one eye. He experienced epilepsy, his consciousness returned later, and he recovered, gaining control of his limbs. But his personality changed. The disciplined man started burping in public and making crude jokes. He came home late, slept late, and his personality completely transformed. When these cases in the literature were combined, it was investigated, “Is the region known as the silent area of the brain a region related to our behavior, morality, and personality?” In fact, our brain is not silent; it works unconsciously. The state we call unconscious or subconscious is referred to as implicit memory. If we think of it like a computer, just as system files run on a computer, our brain also operates without our knowledge. These characteristics distinguish humans as a different species from other living beings.

**Reasoning Methods, Evidence-Based Belief**

Our brain characteristics also refute the thesis of evolutionary theory, which advocates for accidental existence. How can concept-based thought, symbolic thought, emerge by chance in a human? This cannot be explained by the laws of physics. For this reason, this situation is currently an area where they cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships, like DNA. Therefore, there is a brain that reasons based on logic. Other living beings do not have this characteristic related to logic-based reasoning, “logical reasoning”. Now, there are 4 known methods compared in logical reasoning.

**Deduction** or the deductive method can also be called analysis. From cause to effect, from fire to smoke. In deduction, there is a fire behind the mountain, but you don't see the fire, you see the smoke, but with reasoning, you say, “Since there is smoke, smoke does not come from where there is no fire,” yet you see the smoke even though you don't see the fire. If someone says, “I didn't see the fire,” you say, “Smoke does not come from where there is no fire.” This is proof that there is fire. In this situation, you cannot say, “There is no fire.”

The other is the **induction** method. The method developed by Aristotle was only the inductive method. As an example of the inductive method, we can show understanding creation and existence by examining a fly.

The other method is called **analogy**, abduction, or the analogy method. It is based on understanding larger premises by considering smaller premises. For example, someone came from the center of Şanlıurfa and said, “There was a major accident there, 2 people died!” You might believe him or not… 10 minutes later, someone else came and said, “There was an accident, 2 people died.” A third person also came and said the same thing… Now you will have no doubt that there was an accident there. When several independent people say this, you have no doubt; an accident has occurred.

Thus, by starting from some small premises, it becomes possible to understand the larger premise. This is called abduction, analogy, or the comparative method. In this way, it is possible to reach the truth, that is, to attain what is correct and real through reasoning.

**Logic-Based Reasoning + Evidence in the Universe + Divine Teachings = The Reality of Creation**

Examine the characteristics of an ordinary fly. It flaps its wings 500 times per second, has 8000 compound eyes and lenses. These features are written in its DNA, it lives for only a few weeks, what is its purpose in the universe?

Abduction emerged later; modal logic came into prominence in the 1920s. Induction, exhaustive induction, argument from effect to cause, from smoke to fire, is a chain of logic. It is about establishing a connection with the cause by starting from the result. In the other, it is about reaching a conclusion from the cause and connecting with it. The first is the method of drawing a conclusion by connecting from fire to smoke, the other from smoke to fire.

**Reasoning Methods**

Numerical Reasoning: Reasoning related to the ability to analyze numerical relationships, sequential relationships.

Logical Reasoning: Reasoning related to the ability to think and analyze based on logic.

Nonverbal Reasoning: Reasoning related to the ability to analyze visual and shape-based information. It expresses the relationship of size, color, and form.

Verbal Reasoning: Verbal reasoning. Reasoning related to the ability to analyze and interpret written information.

The other method is modal logic.

This is also called modern logic. It was defined in 1925-26. According to modal logic, the method of finding truth is as follows: Let's say you live in Istanbul, and the 1999 earthquake happened. Is the probability of an earthquake now likely or possible? It's possible but not likely. Because if it were likely, you would have to sleep on the street, set up a tent, it would be an imminent danger, but possible! For a distant danger, a faint possibility, a very weak danger, you wouldn't think of setting up a tent. When analyzing an issue, the analysis is done by looking at which universe it belongs to. In existence, too, one proceeds according to this modal logic; can we understand existence by reasoning in this way?

First, I need to mention logic-based reasoning so that I can explain its logic to you. Today, for intelligence and reasoning tests, there is an analysis system developed using these reasoning methods. It is used in the form of computerized modules. There are attention tests called SPM, COG, or NVLT (non-verbal learning test), DAUF (long-term attention test), WISC-R and WaisInt…etc. All of these are tests that measure reason, intelligence, attention, and decision-making processes in terms of focus, causality, difference, similarity, temporal sequencing, and abstraction. CAS, Tova, Moxo tests are examples of attention tests. These are tests we use in daily practice. They are related to measuring a person's intelligence and reasoning power.

These tests are important in this context. The ability to use this exists in humans. You cannot conduct an intelligence test on an animal. You cannot conduct a reasoning test. Animals do not have a theory of mind. Only humans have it. Humans even have a theory of theory. In theory of mind, when someone puts their hand in their pocket, we think they are taking out their keys; we form assumptions about what they will do when they put their hand in their pocket while going to their car. This is theory of mind. For example, autistics do not have this. An autistic person only believes what they see. Animals also do not have this. An animal also believes what it sees.

There is also a theory of theory, where one considers what the other person is thinking. This is called theory of theory. All these are features in the human brain; because of these features, humans are capable of theory of mind, distinguishing between autistic and non-autistic individuals. Autistic individuals are individuals who have no function other than eating, drinking, and reproducing. This condition turns a person into a patient, leading to individuals who cannot produce abstract thought. This feature exists particularly in humans. Why does this reasoning ability exist in humans but not in other living beings? This is the human characteristic of understanding existence. It is genetically encoded in humans.

![](https://cdn.uskudar.edu.tr/uploads/images/2022/04/25/800/4_1.png)

**Logic is Used in All Sciences**

While the application areas of logic were previously only a mental exercise of philosophy of religion, after the 1930s it began to be applied in natural sciences as well. Psychology also started using it towards the end of the twentieth century.

Now, the application area of logic is no longer limited to religion; logic is seriously used in spiritual experiences and in the science of psychology. It is also applied in concept analysis of disciplines such as physics, mathematics, social sciences, and philosophy.

The purpose of logic is to move from the known to the unknown, from the visible to the invisible, from wrong behavior to right behavior and truth. The purpose of ethics is to reach what is right and good. Logic has served all sciences and developments. The science of logic brings a methodology that can help all sciences in reaching truth while moving from the known to the unknown. Logic occupies a very significant place in the methodology of science. Logic is a method that facilitates human perception and leads to definite knowledge.

**Modern Logic**

It is necessary to mention the symbolic logic brought by modernism. If logic cannot be converted into spoken language, if reasoning is not expressed, it is considered nonexistent.

In classical logic, imagination has been relegated to the background. When conducting schizophrenia research, three realities are discussed. The first is **material reality**, which we perceive with our five senses. The second is **imaginary reality**. For example, in the world of imagination, we go to space, fix the world, do good and beautiful things for people, wage wars, make peace. We call these imagination and return to the material world. The world of imagination has a reality within itself; novels are written this way. Literature emerged in this way. Futurists have made interpretations of the future based on this. Imagining is important in the advancement of science, because it brings forth productive and exploratory thought. What Newton did was a journey in the world of imagination. What Archimedes did was the reflection of a journey in the world of imagination into the material world. Rationalism and empiricism, by ignoring the reality of the imaginative world, reduced science solely to matter through experiment and observation. They relegated theoretical physics, theoretical logic, and theoretical sciences to the background.

Thus, in modern logic, theoretical sciences operate alongside positive sciences. Theoretical knowledge, knowledge from the world of imagination, is being attempted to be made expressible. For example, recently, there have been efforts to film the dreams of a person who dreams at night.

After material and imaginary reality, the third is **dream reality**. When a dreamer wakes up, if they do not suddenly realize they have woken up, they continue to live their dream; an outside observer would think they have lost their mind. The truths in a dream are not the same as the truths in the material world. Both have different psychological dynamics.

In symbolic logic, a journey towards reality is made by operating with different assumptions. In this logic, inferences are drawn, and whether the inference is valid is checked. To be testable, symbols such as imagination symbols, existential symbols, angel, devil, opposition, and truth are defined. A mechanism to control these symbols is created.

**Modal Logic**

In modal logic, there are four states: the real world, the necessary world (actual world), the possible world, and the probable world. It involves thinking about the truth value of each world and making decisions through reasoning.

For example, we can give the example of someone about to perform prayer (salat) falling into doubt regarding their ablution (wudu) in modal logic. A person who doubts their ablution believes that their prayer is not valid because they are not clean. When modal logic is considered, according to the first state, the real world: “The prayer of one who is not clean is not valid.”

According to the second state, the necessary world: “There is impurity in the intestines. Therefore, you are not clean.” According to the third state, the possible world: “You know you performed your purification. If you don't remember the opposite, you are clean.”

According to the fourth state, the probable world: “You might be impure, you might not have performed ablution, in that case, your prayer is not valid.”

Here, the truth value of each world is analyzed separately. According to the possible world, if a person perceives themselves as 51 percent clean, they are clean, meaning if they are clean by predominant belief (zann-ı galip), they have ablution. The conclusion drawn according to modal logic is: “You are living in the possible world, therefore you have ablution.”

This logic shows the scrupulous person how to act according to the truth value of the probable world.  

This method is used by psychiatrists and psychologists in obsession, in correcting cognitive distortions, mental distortions, and perceptual defects.

In modal logic, the truth value of the proposition in the possible world is considered. This is the state of whether what the proposition indicates is real, necessary, or possible.

![](https://cdn.uskudar.edu.tr/uploads/images/2022/04/25/800/5_1.png)

**Moral Reasoning**

One of the important methods of modern logic is moral reasoning. In the proof method of existential sciences, the definition of moral reasoning is included. According to the first level of this reasoning, there is **consequence-oriented thinking**. For example, a child spills a glass of milk, and makes an inference based on the outcome, whether it is good or bad. They decide based on what is visible. They remain at the lowest level because they cannot make the abstract interpretation, “Actually, there was something harmful in the milk, that's why he spilled it.”

At the second level of reasoning, **intention **is considered. For example, if someone gets angry at you and is simply dismissed as “That person is bad,” then a low-level reasoning has been performed. In reasoning according to abstract values, intention is taken into account, and empathy is used by putting oneself in another's place. Decisions are made with a sense of duty and responsibility. Moral reasoning is carried out according to the awareness of social order, taking into account questions such as “Does my decision harm others, do I need to endure this hardship for my future, what is the other party's intention?”

At the third level, there is **higher reasoning**. At this stage of reasoning, a person succeeds in being just, showing compassion, alleviating suffering, resisting instincts, being self-sacrificing, enduring hardship for others, enduring hardship for their ideals, and considering the feelings of others. This type of reasoning is not found in everyone, but only in wise individuals and the ideal human type. Children cannot perceive based on intention. They only make decisions based on what is visible; as they mature, intention-based decision-making develops.

Moral reasoning occurs within modal logic. In this logic, abstract values and decision-making based on intention come to the forefront. According to this situation, how should ideal learning be? Ideal learning is the ability to reproduce knowledge. Logic that is based on reproducing knowledge is ideal reasoning. This method is also found in modal logic. Because other options, differences, and other realities outside one's own reality are also considered. In modal logic, necessities, probabilities, the difference between fact and perception, perceptual distortions, and biases are observed. The underlying reasons for the other party's exaggeration or minimization of an event are recognized. In cognitive distortions in psychology, treatment is applied by changing thought habits. While developing the decision-making centers in a person's brain, a reasoning method that reproduces thought is applied. This is a style that develops thought, rather than following existing thought, because it questions the existing.

**Post-Materialist Science Manifesto**

Finally; Neuroscience, Brain and Consciousness studies have led us to the collapse of materialism, and I would like to state that rational belief is possible and Spinoza's error has been understood. It has now begun to be discussed that Religion and Science are a whole. It was understood that evolution has its own evolution and that the laws of evolution cannot operate independently of an external reality. The explanation presenting a holistic scientific view was announced in 2014 by Dr. Mario Beauregard and his colleagues from Arizona and Columbia Universities.

![](https://cdn.uskudar.edu.tr/uploads/images/2022/04/25/800/.jpg)

**Prof. Dr. Nevzat Tarhan**

**Founding Rector of Üsküdar University - Psychiatrist**

**Zafer Magazine**

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*Kaynak: [Üsküdar Haber Ajansı](https://uha.com.tr) — https://uha.com.tr/logical-and-moral-reasoning*